Introduction

Organizations experience change. Success in organizations implementing change is affected by many factors. Leadership styles, implementation methods, and follower response to change contribute to or detract from this success. Information processing in the human mind is closely related to follower satisfaction, which in turn is closely related to good leadership. Follower satisfaction and good leadership combined contribute to successful change implementation.

Literature Review

Organizations today face many challenges when implementing change. A major factor affecting the successfulness or failure is employee, or follower, acceptance or “buy-in” to the changes. Leading change theorist, John Kotter, identified eight effective change management strategies: establishing a sense of urgency, forming a powerful guiding coalition, creating a vision, communicating that vision, empowering others to act on the vision, planning for and creating short-term wins, consolidating improvements and keeping the momentum moving, and institutionalizing new approaches. Kotter theorizes that these eight promote effective follower acceptance and “buy-in” which ultimately promote successful change implementation. Communication and steps that lead to follower satisfaction are discussed later (Kotter, 1996).

DiBlasio and Milani investigated the differences between face-to-face and computer-mediated communications methods as they relate to persuasion. Defining persuasion as “a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behavior regarding an issue through transmission of a message, in an atmosphere of free choice. . . there is no doubt that communication represents the key aspect of the persuasion process” (DiBlasio and Milani, 2008).

The “digital revolution” provides alternate methods of communication, namely using computers or other digital devices. DiBlasio and Milani refer to the Social Information Processing perspective (SIDE), which is the perception of belonging to a social group, be it virtual or traditional, which contributes to the persuasion process. Participants in a virtual social group attain a sense of anonymity and belonging to the virtual social group. These characteristics are traditionally found to be responsible in de-individualization processes, but are also found to reinforce “support and conformity to the norms of the group” and “tend to be aggregated around polarized positions” (DiBlasio and Milani, 2008). Interestingly, it is also found that communication using computers favors social support in minority groups. In face-to-face communications settings, now famous experiments show conformity to majority positions, even when that position is clearly wrong (DiBlasio and Milani, 2008).

Other factors affecting persuasive influence for change include perception of authority, strength of arguments, and the reflection time available to the participants. The anonymity found in virtual communications may contribute to the ability of participants to resist pressure from majority groups. This, along with other perceptions, contributes to the occurrence of persuasive influence in virtual settings. However, DiBlasio and Milano theorize that participants reflect on the content of virtual discussions to a greater degree than in traditional discussions and thus use greater and more complex cognitive operations to evaluate discussions. Greater amount of time allowed for reflection, coupled with anonymity reduce persuasive influence of participants. Findings indicate that discussions in virtual settings have less persuasive influence than face-to-face discussions (DiBlasio and Milani, 2008).

An Empirical Investigation of the Factors Affecting the Adoption of Instant Messaging in Organizations, by To, et al, discusses three characteristics relevant to acceptance of change when dealing with new technologies. Relative advantage is the perception that the new technology is an improvement to previously used technologies. Compatibility is “the degree to which innovations are perceived as being consistent with the existing values, needs, and past experiences of potential adopters.” Complexity is the degree of difficulty associated with the new technology, as perceived by the potential adopter. They found that “attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control are three key factors affecting behavioral intention,” a precursor to acceptance or adoption. Other factors influencing acceptance or adoption include critical mass, security, perceived presence awareness and business relation’s influence. Their findings indicate that perceived presence awareness has the greatest impact on attitude due to the fact that participants develop a sense of connectivity with other participants and it is found that this greatly affects the attitude of adoption (To, et al, 2007).

In a study conducted to understand the role of an “idea champion,” or change agent, researchers determined that the use of an idea champion significantly and directly affects adoption. This is accomplished through communication with participants, raising awareness and familiarity with the technology or issue. Idea champions are participants in an organization who support adoption of the new technology or change, exhibit a willingness to look forward (which is necessary for innovative behavior), recognize the value of the potential change, and “attempts to convince (persuade) others of the value of the proposed new idea” (Mullins, et al, 2008). The authors find that idea champions encourage participants to try new things. This study did not include social perceptions of participants, but it would be interesting to further study the relationship between idea champions and potential adopters insofar as feelings of anonymity (or lack thereof) and social groups (or lack thereof) are concerned. Combining understanding of the effects of time allowed for reflection, connectivity with other potential adopters, and use of idea champions would seem to contribute to greater rates of adoption (Mullins, et al, 2008).

Organizational leadership also affects acceptance or rejection of change. The relationship between the role of leadership and individual perceptions of change are analyzed in a study performed to determine if a correlation exists. Cited literature in this study indicates that organizational culture, driven by leadership, affects individual response to change and is a major determinant in adaptation or resistance to change. The transformational leadership or inspirational leadership theory appears to influence individuals toward acceptance or adoption through a foundation of “integrity, trust, and community” (Appelbaum, et al, 2008). Leadership where communication occurs in first-line management coupled with perceived quality of information shows improved acceptance or adoption. Individual support and participation is found to be the largest contributing factor to successful change management, with individual input to the decision-making process greatly affecting individual perception of the situation. In Examining the Nature and Significance of Leadership in Government, the authors find that their study supports the transformation leadership theory indicating that acceptance or adoption are greatly influenced by individual perception of effective leadership. Individual satisfaction as an outcome of effective leadership is also shown to contribute to and greatly influence acceptance or adoption (Trottier, et al, 2008).

In a study focusing on formative feedback, Valerie J. Shute finds that psychological theories suggest that use of a goal-oriented approach to learning motivates interest, makes the task more manageable, provides direction, delineates current standards and goals, and defines expectations. “It was my teacher’s genius, her quick sympathy, her loving tact which made the first years of my education so beautiful. It was because she seized me at just the right moment to impart knowledge that made it so pleasant and acceptable to me. – Helen Keller” (Shute, 2008).

In a study conducted to understand mechanisms used by participants involved in organizational change, personal coping is found to be the process by which individuals appraise a given situation and reflects that individual’s perception of the situation. Cognitive appraisal of the person-encounter determines whether the perception is negative or positive. Individuals often appraise the situation to be harmful or threatening. This is the influence for the coping method selected. Research asserts that individual emotions greatly influence the coping method as well, with appraisal precipitating emotion. It is further asserted that it is individual emotions that influence coping methods and outcomes. This appraisal-emotion link is found to be consistent with various appraisal theories supporting this finding. Results of the study on personal coping indicate that a stimulus-response method of coping, defining the person-situation encounters, or organizational change situations as the stimulus, and the coping or response to the situation as the response is the “most accurate representation of how individuals cope with organizational change.” Support for this behavioral psychology model is well documented in numerous empirical studies (Fugate, et al, 2008).

Discussion

The literature reviewed for this paper suggests a relationship between leadership, follower satisfaction, cognitive skills, information processing and coping, timing, communication, and communication tools. This relationship suggests that methods may be developed to enhance and influence acceptance of change.

According to authors of The Role of Leadership During Large Scale Organizational Transitions: Lessons from Six Empirical Studies, participant emotions determine the method selected for coping with a particular situation. Whether the participant is in a minority group or majority group, the emotions of the individual significantly affect the coping mechanisms. Feelings of belonging in a social group contribute to positive emotions of individuals and thus affect coping (Appelbaum, et al, 2008). Reflection on content/information relevant to the situation produces higher quality decision making but reduces persuasion of individuals. Greater reflection time is spent in virtual settings so it follows that effective persuasion occurs more readily in face-to-face situations (DiBlasio and Milani, 2008). Individuals guiding the change movement using persuasion techniques will want to employ face-to-face meetings as opposed to communication technologies that employ other than face-to-face settings. Information processing by individuals is affected by feedback. The timing of the feedback further affects emotions and coping as well as the delivery method (Shute, 2008).

Transformational leadership and the use of idea champions stimulates follower satisfaction. Perception of effective leadership, including trust and integrity, also affects individual satisfaction. Individual satisfaction influences use of cognitive information processing which directly affects coping mechanisms used when developing perceptions of situations (Appelbaum, 2008). Effective communications, including individuals and their input coupled with appropriate communication tools and appropriate timing, enhance positive emotions. Using first-line management communication, with second-line and upper management communication following, creates perceptions of effective leadership, which promote positive emotion. Positive emotions appear to enhance greater acceptance of change. Acceptance of change in an organization supports objectives and goals where defined and appears to support innovation and growth leading to improved and successful change implementation (Trottier, et al, 2008).

References

Appelbaum, S., Berke, J., Taylor, J., Vazquez, J. (2008). “The role of leadership during large scale organizational transitions: lessons from six empirical studies,” Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge. Hollywood: Mar 2008. Vol. 13, Iss. 1; pg 16. Retrieved 3/11/08 from ProQuest database on the World Wide Web. http://jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com.jprox.lib.ecu.edu/ pqdweb?did=1413743743721&Fmt=3&clientid=15121&RQT=309&VName=PQD

DiBlasio, P., Milani, L. (2008). “Computer-mediated communication and persuasion: Peripheral vs. central route to opinion shift,” Computers in Human Behavior, May 2008. Vol. 24, Iss 3; pg. 798. Retrieved 3/11/08 from ScienceDirect database on the World Wide Web. http://www.sciencedirect.com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu

Fugate, M., Kinicki, A., Prussia, G. (2008). “Employee coping with organizational change: An examination of alternative theoretical perspectives and models,” Personal Psychology. Durham: Spring 2008. Vol. 61. Iss. 1; pg. 1. Retrieved 3/11/08 from ProQuest database on the World Wide Web. http://jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com.jprox.lib.ecu.edu/ pqdweb?did=1436247761&Fmt=4&clientid=15121&RQT=309&VName=PQD

Kotter, J. (1996). “Leading Change,” Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Mullins, M., Kozlowski, S., Schmitt, N, Howell, A. (2008). “The role of the idea champion in innovation: The case of the internet in the mid-1990’s,” Computers in Human Behavior, March 2008. Vol. 24. Iss. 2; pg. 451. Retrieved 3/11/2008 from ScienceDirect database on the World Wide Web. http://www.sciencedirect.com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu

Shute, V. (2008) “Focus on formative feedback,” Review of Educational Research. Washington: Mar 2008. Vol. 78. Iss. 1; pg 153. Retrieved 3/11/08 from ProQuest database on the World Wide Web. http://jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com.jprox.lib.ecu.edu/ pqdweb?did=1436588751&Fmt=3&clientid=15121&RQT=309&VName=PQD

To, P., Liao, C., Chiang, J., Shih, M., Chang, C. (2008). “An empirical investigation of the factors affecting the adoption of instant messaging in organizations,” Computer Standards and Interfaces. March 2008. Vol. 30, Iss. 3; pg. 148. Retrieved 3/11/08 from ScienceDirect database on the World Wide Web. http://www.sciencedirect.com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu

Trottier, T., Van Wart, M., Wang, X. (2008). “Examing the nature and significance of leadership in government organizations,” Public Administration Review. Washington: Mar/Apr 2008. Vol. 68, Iss. 2; pg. 319. Retrieved 3/11/08 from ProQuest database on the World Wide Web. http://jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com.jprox.lib.ecu.edu/ pqdweb?did=1435702221&Fmt=4&clientid=15121&RQT=309&VName=PQD